SSO om The Crucible og hekseprocesserne i Salem

HF 2. år

The Salem Witch Trials, The Crucible, and 1950’s McCarthyism

December 20

, 2013

HF 2. år

Counselor

HF 2. år

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Abstract

This essay attempts to discover the potency of Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible,

as a critique of McCarthyism in 1950’s USA. This is achieved, firstly, through an explanation of

the term Puritanism and its origins, which characterizes the Puritans of New England as

colonists who left their nation to found a new society in which their lives were dedicated to the

service of God, a brief summary of the witch hunts and trials of Salem, Massachusetts in the 17

century, and secondly, through the analysis and interpretation of The Crucible, with a primary

focus on the development of John and Elizabeth Proctor, as well as their growing bond to one

another, and finally, through a discussion of how the different elements, of which The Crucible is

comprised, share similarities with elements of the period of the Red Scare and McCarthyism. It

is then concluded that Arthur Miller’s play from 1953 can justifiably be regarded as a direct

critique of the phenomenon in USA in the 1950’s, known as McCarthyism.

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Table of Contents

Introduction to Puritanism and its Origins ..................................................................................................... 3

Summary and Explanation of the Salem Witch Trials ............................................................................... 4

Analysis and Interpretation of The Crucible ................................................................................................... 5

Notes ................................................................................................................................................................................. 5

The Title ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6

The Themes .................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Good and Evil ............................................................................................................................................................. 6

Compassion and Forgiveness ............................................................................................................................... 7

Morality and Integrity ............................................................................................................................................ 7

The Time Period and Environment ...................................................................................................................... 8

Analysis of Selected Characters ............................................................................................................................. 9

John Proctor ............................................................................................................................................................... 9

Elizabeth Proctor ..................................................................................................................................................... 9

The Integrity and Compassion of John and Elizabeth Proctor ............................................................. 10

Discussion of The Crucible as a critique of McCarthyism ...................................................................... 10

McCarthyism and the Red Scare.......................................................................................................................... 11

The Crucible and McCarthyism ............................................................................................................................ 11

Unsubstantiated Claims and Spectral Evidence ........................................................................................ 12

Fear of Suspicion and Judgment ...................................................................................................................... 12

Arthur Miller: The “Un-American”? ................................................................................................................ 12

Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................................... 13

Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................. 14

Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................... 14

Books and Articles .................................................................................................................................................... 15

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Introduction to the Essay

For all intents and purposes, this essay seeks to summarize the Salem Witch Trials

of 1692, to analyze and interpret The Crucible with a primary focus on the book’s main

characters, John and Elizabeth Proctor, as well as to discuss the potency of Arthur Miller’s play

as an indirect critique of McCarthyism in 1950’s USA, and finally, to reach a conclusion based on

the discussion and background knowledge presented before it.

Introduction to Puritanism and its Origins

In the late 16

century, the rise of Puritanism was at its utmost prominent stage,

although still young. This religious reform movement was started by a group of devout

Christians in England, who thought that the level of dedication and piousness of the current

English Christian community was much too unsubstantial in its devotion to God. Initially, the

term ‘Puritan’ was a name used by people opposed to the concept of Puritanism as a spiteful

means of addressing the members of the aforementioned religious reform movement

However, this term was later adopted as a personal identifier by the members, themselves,

which likely led to the term’s survival to this day. Some of these religious devotees thought it

necessary to move away from the religious heedlessness in England, and chose to immigrate to

the New World, a nation not officially addressed as the United States of America until the

Declaration of Independence of 1776

. This group of colonists that left behind their nation

helped in the founding of New England. A large portion of the Puritans who left for the United

States, settled in Salem, Massachusetts, a town in which tragic events would lead to the negative

sound the term Puritanism carries today.

However, before the events, and details thereof, that transpired in Salem,

Massachusetts can be fully understood, it is necessary to first take a look at the past. In Dr.

Francis J. Bremer’s Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction, it becomes apparent that Puritanism

was not initially a distinct faith, but in fact a Christian reform movement. As earlier mentioned,

they distanced themselves from the religious heedlessness, and thought a reformation was

necessary. The people who were part of this movement sought to reform the English church, or

to purify it, in a sense. They were the epitome of religious devotion, and aimed to turn their

society, and the communities immediately around them, into parts of the kingdom of God. A

popular belief amongst the Puritans was the conviction that they were chosen by the

aforementioned deity to spread His word to everyone around them, with the goal to further

humanity’s connection with Him. Unfortunately, as a result of their high ethical and religious

standards, they were eventually seen as mere prudes by the general public of England, and

Francis J. Bremer, Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction (p. 2, l. 15-17), 2009 © Oxford University Press

Transcript of Declaration of Independence, U.S. National Archives

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finally felt pressured into moving elsewhere, which is what led them to the New World. As

previously mentioned, a large portion of the Puritans settled in Salem, Massachusetts. The

gruesome events that occurred here in the time of the Puritans are popularly referred to as the

Salem Witch Trials.

Summary and Explanation of the Salem Witch Trials

In the year of 1692, the drama in Puritan society of Salem, Massachusetts was at

its historical peak. After King William the 3

and Queen Mary the 2

of England had started a

war with the French colonists in a territorial dispute in 1689, refugees scattered to many places,

and some moved to the village of Salem

. The relocation of these refugees to Salem caused

discrepancies in the local society in the form of a strain on their resources. The Puritan villagers

eventually needed something on which to blame their struggles, and slowly but surely decided

that it must have been the work of Satan. The struggles in Salem Village are thought to be what

launched the numerous witchcraft accusations as the result of a desperate need to blame

someone for their misfortunes.

The witchcraft accusations in Salem Village began with the local reverend’s

daughter having fallen ill, along with a few other young girls from the village, after having

allegedly danced in the woods with other fellow village girls and Tituba, the reverend’s black

slave. The local doctor was called upon to determine the cause of illness, as the condition of the

girls did not improve – he claimed witchcraft was the only possible explanation. The mention of

witchcraft and other ill supernatural deeds spawned the chain reaction of baseless accusations

that will explained in the next paragraphs.

As a result of the doctor’s diagnosis, Jonathan Corwin and John Hathorne – both

wealthy merchants and magistrates of the Massachusetts Bay Colony – pressured the village

girls in poor health into admitting who the perpetrators were; who had caused them to meet

this fate. The girls uttered in pain the names of three women, all of whom were later imprisoned

without proof of their misdeeds, despite the fact that two of them pleaded innocent

Furthermore, the reason for the three women’s arrest was based entirely on the seemingly

“bewitched” outcries of the diseased young girls

, as their unnatural fits and spasms convinced

the townsfolk that the work of the Devil was present.

Jess Blumberg, A Brief History of the Salem Witch Trials, Smithsonian Magazine, Oct. 27

, 2007

History.com Editors, Salem Witch Trials, History.com, A&E Television Networks, LLC.

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The series of trials and convictions that took place in the following months was set

in motion by the questionable diagnostic abilities of a single doctor, and the village girls’

inclination to abuse their newfound manipulative powers

; they were able get rid of mostly all

the people that disagreed with or challenged their truthfulness in the slightest.

A total of 19 women accused of witchcraft were hanged, a single man was crushed

to death as he refused to plead either guilty or not, and around 13 died in prison before being

executed.

Throughout the many accusations, verdicts, and executions, however, the general

public opinion slowly started to turn against the trials. The accusations had been getting bolder,

affecting more and more of the wealthy inhabitants and people of a higher social standing,

whereas in the beginning, it affected only slaves, homeless, and other poor people without any

substantial influence. This is the reason, which allowed the accusations to go unchallenged in

the beginning, but further along become threatened by the people who had a say in the matters.

As a result, doubt had started to circle the authenticity of the “bewitched” village girls’ claims.

Finally, the colonial governor of Massachusetts, William Phips

, ordered the

cessation of the use of spectral evidence in the courtroom, and for no more arrests based on

witchcraft to be made. The chief judge of Salem, William Stoughton, ordered all the women who

had been accused of witchcraft, but were currently exempted due to pregnancy, to be hanged.

Governor Phips denied the order, and Judge Stoughton left the bench.

Although the aftermath

of these events is not accounted for in this essay, that concludes the brief summary of the Salem

Witch Trials.

Analysis and Interpretation of The Crucible

Notes

Written in 1953 by Arthur Miller, The Crucible is a play set in Salem,

Massachusetts, and concerns the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. In the beginning of the book, Miller

notes that the book is not historically accurate, in the sense that several characters have been

tampered with, some put together as one, and all their personalities conjured up, to the best of

the author’s ability, from the different records of the time period

As the book is a play based on historic events, the narrator is only able to explain

the missing details of events and characters throughout the book, and give brief summaries of

background stories that do not come to light through the lines of the characters.

The Salem Witch Trials of 1692, 2012 © Salem Witch Museum

Death Warrant & List of Dead, Famous American Trials

Phips, Sir William, Dictionary of Canadian Biography

Chronology of Events Regarding to the Salem Witch Trials of 1692, Famous American Trials

Arthur Miller, The Crucible, 2000 © Penguin Classics

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The Title

First of all, the title of the play, The Crucible, has officially been defined as several

different things, but most relevant are the following two examples:

1) “A vessel made of a refractory substance such as graphite or porcelain,

used for melting and calcining materials at high temperatures.”

2) “A severe test, as of patience or belief; a trial.”

These definitions give the reader the choice to interpret the title in different ways.

The first one is the literal meaning the word carries, and can be utilized to understand the title

as a metaphor of the violent hysteria and heated reactions that take place in Salem Village. As

such, Salem could be interpreted as the “melting pot”, and the characters would consequently

symbolize the different materials that melt together and create violent and heated reactions

within. Secondly, the other definition that uses the word as a metaphor gives the reader the

opposite possibility of interpreting the title quite literally; the different characters in the story

that must undergo a trial of patience and faith

Therefore, the word – in its metaphorical sense – strongly hints at the harsh trials

of two major characters of The Crucible, namely John and Elizabeth Proctor, whom will later on

be explained and analyzed in greater detail.

The Themes

In The Crucible, there is no shortage of universally applicable themes to be found

and pondered upon. A few of the themes possess a heavier presence than others, however, and

the most important ones are tied together with the essence of this play. The ones that this

research paper have found to carry higher importance will be analyzed in this section.

Good and Evil

As the elements that possibly contribute the most irony to the entire play, these

themes are represented entirely differently, depending on whom is consulted for the answer.

The entire concept of Puritanism is to be the most devoted Christian you can be, devoting your

entire life to service under God, and the most important part, in relation to the themes

discussed, to combat the evil around oneself at all times through the good word of God. As such,

as an entry point, the Puritans represent goodness. However, in The Crucible, goodness is in fact

represented by the accused people of the trials, and one example of this is John Proctor.

The American Heritage® Dictionary Editors, crucible. (n.d)., The Free Dictionary by Farlex

Shmoop Editors, The Crucible Title, Shmoop University, Inc., Nov. 11

, 2008

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Although he is rightly accused of committing a heinous sin, he becomes one of the most

admirable characters of the entire play. In his refusal to give into the demands of the powerful

magistrates, because of their redundant methods of punishment, John revokes their almighty

status as judges, and prevents them from obtaining what they sought from him. As he has

already confessed, and begged for forgiveness and received it, he deems it a cruel and

unnecessary punishment that he should also sign a written confession, forever soiling his name.

As an example of evil, the fate of a man by the name of Giles Corey is highly

applicable. Although Giles was not a saint himself

, the measures taken against him to make

him confess could be deemed of a greater evil. He is accused of witchcraft, and as he refuses to

plead neither guilty nor innocent, the magistrates initiate torture by gradually crushing Giles

underneath an increasing weight of stones over the course of several days, until he eventually

died. As people who claim to judge only by the hand of God’s justice, the magistrates

contradictorily let the old and weak man, Giles Corey, die a tortured death.

Compassion and Forgiveness

The two themes in question go hand-in-hand in this play by Arthur Miller, and are

coincidentally represented by two main characters who go hand-in-hand, as well – John and

Elizabeth Proctor. This married couple fights against the very fabric of which the Puritan court

system of Salem consists in the time period. As they eventually succeed in proving that these

themes are indeed more powerful than the twisted justice and naïve religious principles of the

contemporary Puritan law system, it becomes clear that the author meant for these themes to

be overwhelmingly visible towards the end of the book.

Morality and Integrity

As virtues that are noticeable throughout the entire book in the form of John and

Elizabeth Proctor, these closely connected themes become the winning piece in the battle

between good and evil. To discover the presence of these themes, one need only take a look at

the exemplary acts and words of courage by John and Elizabeth, to witness what great lengths

the truly strong people will go, to protect what they hold most dear. To demonstrate is the

following example, in which Elizabeth shows her true character:

“DANFORTH: […] Answer my question! Is your husband a lecher!

ELIZABETH, faintly: No, sir.

PROCTOR, crying out: Elizabeth, I have confessed it!”

Rebecca Beatrice Books, The Curse of Giles Corey, History of Massachusetts, Oct. 12

, 2011

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 100, l. 21-26), 2000 © Penguin Classics

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In this passage, Elizabeth forsakes the honesty, which she has always held dear, to

protect her husband’s reputation, and the only thing he has left – his name. She sees the option

to keep her husband’s name clean as the most morally correct choice, and the integrity of her

character allows her to forsake all other principles in exchange for the most important one to

her. Her act of integrity seems to inspire her husband, as John chooses to not sign the written

confession he is later presented, possibly in part because it would render his wife’s effort

meaningless.

The Time Period and Environment

As previously mentioned, The Crucible takes place in colonial America, in the late

century. Among the many Puritan settlements, Salem, Massachusetts was in fact quite small

when compared to others. In this period, a highly visible religious influence shaped the society

in which the Puritan settlers lived. In not only Salem, but also all other Puritan-based

settlements, the theocratically

inclined government of the time made itself quite noticeable in

the way of many laws that derived from norms within the religion and specific branch of

Christendom. Among the many laws, a few effectively portray the pious dutifulness encouraged

by the government. These include the prohibition of expressing intimate affection in public on

Sundays, i.e. kissing one’s wife, the outlawing of any idle activities, such as swimming or

smoking, and finally, the wearing of any unnecessary or provocative attire, such as short-

sleeved dresses, ribbons, or wrist cuffs, was also strictly forbidden

. The enforcement of these

laws often came through punishment in the form of sitting in the stocks for several hours, for

example. As a result, the inhabitants of these settlements were more than inclined to follow the

strict guidelines for how to live one’s life in the service of God, and not waste it away on worldly

pleasures.

It is also important to note that the environment of the Puritan settlements,

although peaceful and orderly on the inside, was surrounded by the unknown, including many

dangers and general hostility. This constant threat of the unknown was an important factor in

what drove the Puritans to obsessively cling to their highly regarded codes, rules, and

miscellaneous guidelines. The Native American tribes still roamed the uncivilized lands, and the

Puritans, amongst many other white colonists, regarded the savage nature of these people as

something they had to reform by the will of God

Collins Dictionary Editors, theocratically (n.d.), 2013 © Collins English Dictionary

Murray N. Rothbard, The Puritans “Purify”: Theocracy in Massachusetts, Ludwig von Mises Institute

Casey Clay, How Did the Puritans in New England Interact with Native Americans, July 7

, 2008,

Humanities 360

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When in possession of the background knowledge above, pertaining to the time

period of the trials and the environment in which they took place, Arthur Miller’s dramatization

of the events in Salem Village becomes more comprehensible to the common reader – or viewer

– of the play.

Analysis of Selected Characters

John Proctor

Throughout the play, John Proctor remains the main protagonist. Although he

gave into temptation once, in the form of an affair with Abigail Williams, he dies a redeemed

death, with his name intact. As a man filled with integrity and strong moral principles, his

prideful nature does not let him be coerced into signing the written confession, he is given,

stating that he has committed adultery. The reason for this uncooperative action seems to be

the fact that he has already verbally confessed his sin, and the signing of the written confession

would only soil his name further, for no apparent purpose, as the following quote demonstrates:

“PROCTOR: … How may I live without my name?

I have given you my soul; leave me my name!”

Before our protagonist reached this point, one could argue that he underwent

great internal struggles and finally decided upon the honorable choice of not bending to the will

of the magistrates. Although tormented through many nights of battling with his own demons,

and the sin that he has committed, John Proctor eventually comes to terms with his misdeeds,

and never succumbs to the arguably tempting choice of signing the confession in return for his

life. The development this tragic hero undergoes, symbolizes where his strength truly lies; in his

standard of ethics and moral principles, John Proctor can – somewhat ironically – be considered

the truest of Christians out of the entire character list in the book.

Elizabeth Proctor

The wife of John Proctor, Elizabeth, experiences internal struggles similar to the

ones of her husband. Just as John faces difficulties in forgiving himself for his sins, Elizabeth has

a hard time forgiving her husband for his unfaithfulness towards her. Eventually, they both end

up choosing forgiveness over the bitterness that is to carry a contemptuous attitude towards the

wrongdoings. Although being the victim of her husband’s crimes, Elizabeth finds faults of her

own, which enables her to both understand John, and forgive him for his sins:

“ELIZABETH: … I have read my heart this three month, John. [Pause]

I have sins of my own to count. It needs a cold wife to prompt lechery.”

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 124, l. 32-33), 2000 © Penguin Classics

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As such, it can be argued that the character development of these two characters

is parallel, as shall be explained in further detail below.

The Integrity and Compassion of John and Elizabeth Proctor

As husband and wife, John and Elizabeth undergo tremendous strain on their

marriage after an act of adultery is exposed. After John lays with Abigail Williams of the same

village, he feels a lurking of constant suspicion and doubt from his wife, concerning his every

word and action. Meanwhile, as he has trouble dealing with his sinful act, Elizabeth also faces

difficulties in forgiving her husband for this misdeed that leaves her a victim.

However, they help each other in overcoming the obstacle that initially divides

and weakens them. Prior to John’s arrest, after his verbal confession, he and Elizabeth discuss

their uneasiness around each other, and the “elephant in the room”, that is John’s affair:

“PROCTOR: … Let you look sometimes for the goodness in me, and judge me not.

ELIZABETH: I do not judge you. The magistrate sits in your heart that judges you.

I never thought you but a good man, John […] only somewhat bewildered.”

The passage above reveals that the couple do in part reconcile their conflict,

before the climactic point in act four, in which they achieve complete forgiveness. As previously

mentioned, Elizabeth does not attempt to maintain her innocence throughout the entire play,

but eventually comes to terms with what pushed John into his unfaithful misdeed. It is this

realization, in combination with John’s determination to keep his name unsoiled, which draws

an indistinguishably transparent and uniting bond between Elizabeth’s compassionate attitude

and John’s unbreakable morality, and lets John die with peace in his soul and his dignity intact,

having finally achieved the forgiveness he sought, from not only his wife, but from himself as

well.

Discussion of The Crucible as a critique of McCarthyism

Before the similarities between the witch-hunts dramatized in Arthur Miller’s play

and the “Red Scare” of 1950’s McCarthyism can be clearly seen, it is first necessary to take a look

at and understand McCarthyism, how it originated, why it spread like wildfire, and the elements

of which it consists. After these components of the terrifying phenomenon that is McCarthyism

have been explained, a deeper analysis and discussion of The Crucible as critique thereof will be

presented.

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 119, l. 19-21), 2000 © Penguin Classics

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 55, l. 28-32), 2000 © Penguin Classics

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McCarthyism and the Red Scare

When speaking of McCarthyism, one of a few popular descriptive terms that often

comes up, is the second Red Scare. Not to be confused with the first Red Scare

, which was

popular only briefly after the First World War, the second Red Scare intensified in the U.S. as the

Cold War progressed from the late 1940’s to the early 1950’s

. Popularly defined as the fear of

communism, it was a phenomenon that occurred through the exploitation of the vulnerable state

U.S. citizens found themselves in, as the Cold War was ongoing. The people feared the presence

of communism, as Soviet Union of said political ideology was the greatest threat the U.S. had

faced in a long time. The Red Scare’s definition, and how it was provoked, leads us to

McCarthyism, which can most easily be defined as the following:

“McCarthyism (n.): the practice of making unsubstantiated accusations of disloyalty or Communist

leanings […] [Or] the use of unsupported accusations for any purpose.”

Joseph Raymond McCarthy, after whom the –ism in question is named, was a U.S

Senator who achieved his position by the means of negative campaigning

, in which one

purposely attempts to highlight negative aspects of an opposing candidate, and these aspects

need not necessarily be true for the claims to be made anyway.

Former Senator McCarthy was facing difficulties at his position in the Senate, and,

after a consultation with his closest advisors, decided to redirect the negative focus he had

attained by the public towards something his advisors thought would be easy targets:

communists

. McCarthy utilized the potential for the Red Scare he saw amongst U.S. citizens,

and set in motion a witch-hunt that would result in a case of widespread panic that is today

known as McCarthyism. McCarthy’s movement was eventually put to a halt by former President

Dwight D. Eisenhower, and was afterwards regarded as a malicious and power hungry man.

The Crucible and McCarthyism

Released in 1953, the play by Arthur Miller was well-received, and quickly became

critically acclaimed as an accurate depiction of the hypocrisy and hysteria that was

McCarthyism. As a review from Brooks Atkinson reveals, no qualms were had of drawing a

parallel between the witch-hunts of America in the colonial times as well as in the

contemporary present day of the play’s release:

Jamie Kern, The Red Scare (), The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture, Dec. 12

, 2013

History.com Editors, Red Scare (n.d.), History.com, A&E Television Networks, LLC.

Collins English Dictionary Editors, McCarthyism (n.d.), The Free Dictionary by Farlex

John Simkin, Joseph McCarthy: Biography, Spartacus Educational,

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“Neither Mr. Miller nor his audiences are unaware of certain similarities between the perversions

of justice then and today.”

However, regarding the very fabric of the play, various examples can be used to

demonstrate Arthur Miller’s intentions of portraying McCarthyism as an old-fashioned witch-

hunt, and a select few of these will be discussed in the sections below.

Unsubstantiated Claims and Spectral Evidence

Amongst the most easily noticed examples of similar elements might be the active

usage of accusations based upon unstable foundations, in both the village girls of Salem’s case,

as well as Senator McCarthy’s.

The girls who were thought to be possessed by the devil, at the time of the Salem

Witch Trials, accused people of witchcraft without any real evidence, resorting only to their

hysterical fits, which seemed like the work of the devil. As a result, they succeeded in having

many of those people hanged. Likewise, Senator McCarthy presented a list of over 200

“confirmed” communist party members in the U.S. Department of State, without any substantial

proof, and the list was eventually discovered to be almost entirely false.

Fear of Suspicion and Judgment

Another similarity worthy of mention is the impressive lack of resistance found in

both of the compared periods. It could be argued that the reason for this was people’s fear of

being drawn into the conflict, and immediately viewed as a witch in the time of colonial Salem,

or a communist in the time of McCarthy’s seat in the senate.

Arthur Miller: The “Un-American”?

Possibly one of the most noteworthy details that were not made public until four

years after the release of his play, Arthur Miller was in 1957 charged with contempt of Congress.

The details pertaining to the reason for this charge, and why he was blacklisted by Hollywood

present an interesting factor to consider when discussing The Crucible as a critique of

McCarthyism.

Miller was called to testify in front of HUAC

in order to present the names of

communist party members, but refused to do so. In a later statement by the charged author, he

revealed why he thought there might be suspicions revolving his knowledge of communist party

members:

Brooks Atkinson, The Crucible, The New York Times, Jan. 23

, 1953

John Simkin, Arthur Miller: Biography, Spartacus Educational,

House of Un-American Activities Committee

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“There were two short periods — one in 1940 and one in 1947 — when I was sufficiently close to

Communist Party activities so that someone might honestly have thought that I had become a

member.”

Along with this statement, Miller issued a statement denying rumors that he was a

communist. Although the charges made against the acclaimed playwright were eventually lifted,

different conflicting rumors concerning his political views still exist to this day.

Conclusion

On the basis of the similarities discussed, a conclusion can be reached, which

clearly illustrates The Crucible as a direct critique of McCarthyism. Through the exploration and

analysis of the themes in the play written by Arthur Miller, and their correlation to the so-called

witch-hunt of the McCarthy period, it becomes apparent that history does indeed repeat itself,

as the playwright purposefully attempts to demonstrate, and that corrupt governmental control

thrives in times of fear, and indiscriminately utilizes the general ignorance in people’s

mentalities from which these times spawn.

Jewish Current Editors, Arthur Miller and HUAC (n.d.), Jewish Current.org, May 30

, 2010

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detail.aspx?entryID=4600) Last visited 12/19-2013

- Rothbard, Murray N., The Puritans “Purify”: Theocracy in Massachusetts, Ludwig von

Mises Institute (http://mises.org/page/1427) Last visited 12/18-2013

December 20

, 2013 SSO - HF 2.P

15/15

Museum (http://www.salemwitchmuseum.com/education/) Last visited 12/16-2013

- Shmoop Editors, The Crucible Title, Shmoop University, Inc., Nov. 11

, 2008

(http://www.shmoop.com/crucible/title.html) Last visited 12/18-2013

- Simkin, John, Arthur Miller: Biography, Spartacus Educational,

(http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAmillerA.htm) Last visited 12/20-2013

- Simkin, John, Joseph McCarthy: Biography, Spartacus Educational,

(http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAmccarthy.htm) Last visited 12/19-2013

- U.S. National Archives Editors, Declaration of Independence, Official Transcript, U.S.

National Archives

(http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration_transcript.html) Last visited

12/16-2013

Books and Articles

- Atkinson, Brooks, The Crucible, The New York Times, Jan. 23

, 1953

Press