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The Salem Witch Trials, The Crucible, and 1950’s McCarthyism

December 20^{th}, 2013

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Abstract

This essay attempts to discover the potency of Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible, as a critique of McCarthyism in 1950’s USA. This is achieved, firstly, through an explanation of the term Puritanism and its origins, which characterizes the Puritans of New England as colonists who left their nation to found a new society in which their lives were dedicated to the

service of God, a brief summary of the witch hunts and trials of Salem, Massachusetts in the 17^{th}

century, and secondly, through the analysis and interpretation of The Crucible, with a primary focus on the development of John and Elizabeth Proctor, as well as their growing bond to one another, and finally, through a discussion of how the different elements, of which The Crucible is comprised, share similarities with elements of the period of the Red Scare and McCarthyism. It is then concluded that Arthur Miller’s play from 1953 can justifiably be regarded as a direct critique of the phenomenon in USA in the 1950’s, known as McCarthyism.

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Table of Contents

Introduction to Puritanism and its Origins ..................................................................................................... 3 Summary and Explanation of the Salem Witch Trials ............................................................................... 4 Analysis and Interpretation of The Crucible ................................................................................................... 5 Notes ................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 The Title ........................................................................................................................................................................... 6 The Themes .................................................................................................................................................................... 6 Good and Evil ............................................................................................................................................................. 6 Compassion and Forgiveness ............................................................................................................................... 7 Morality and Integrity ............................................................................................................................................ 7 The Time Period and Environment ...................................................................................................................... 8 Analysis of Selected Characters ............................................................................................................................. 9 John Proctor ............................................................................................................................................................... 9 Elizabeth Proctor ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 The Integrity and Compassion of John and Elizabeth Proctor ............................................................. 10 Discussion of The Crucible as a critique of McCarthyism ...................................................................... 10 McCarthyism and the Red Scare.......................................................................................................................... 11 The Crucible and McCarthyism ............................................................................................................................ 11 Unsubstantiated Claims and Spectral Evidence ........................................................................................ 12 Fear of Suspicion and Judgment ...................................................................................................................... 12 Arthur Miller: The “Un-American”? ................................................................................................................ 12 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................................... 13 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................. 14 Websites ....................................................................................................................................................................... 14 Books and Articles .................................................................................................................................................... 15

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Introduction to the Essay

For all intents and purposes, this essay seeks to summarize the Salem Witch Trials of 1692, to analyze and interpret The Crucible with a primary focus on the book’s main characters, John and Elizabeth Proctor, as well as to discuss the potency of Arthur Miller’s play as an indirect critique of McCarthyism in 1950’s USA, and finally, to reach a conclusion based on the discussion and background knowledge presented before it.

Introduction to Puritanism and its Origins

In the late 16^{th} century, the rise of Puritanism was at its utmost prominent stage,

although still young. This religious reform movement was started by a group of devout Christians in England, who thought that the level of dedication and piousness of the current English Christian community was much too unsubstantial in its devotion to God. Initially, the term ‘Puritan’ was a name used by people opposed to the concept of Puritanism as a spiteful

means of addressing the members of the aforementioned religious reform movement^{1}.

However, this term was later adopted as a personal identifier by the members, themselves, which likely led to the term’s survival to this day. Some of these religious devotees thought it necessary to move away from the religious heedlessness in England, and chose to immigrate to the New World, a nation not officially addressed as the United States of America until the

Declaration of Independence of 1776^{2}. This group of colonists that left behind their nation

helped in the founding of New England. A large portion of the Puritans who left for the United States, settled in Salem, Massachusetts, a town in which tragic events would lead to the negative sound the term Puritanism carries today.

However, before the events, and details thereof, that transpired in Salem,

Massachusetts can be fully understood, it is necessary to first take a look at the past. In Dr.

Francis J. Bremer’s Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction, it becomes apparent that Puritanism was not initially a distinct faith, but in fact a Christian reform movement. As earlier mentioned, they distanced themselves from the religious heedlessness, and thought a reformation was necessary. The people who were part of this movement sought to reform the English church, or to purify it, in a sense. They were the epitome of religious devotion, and aimed to turn their society, and the communities immediately around them, into parts of the kingdom of God. A popular belief amongst the Puritans was the conviction that they were chosen by the aforementioned deity to spread His word to everyone around them, with the goal to further humanity’s connection with Him. Unfortunately, as a result of their high ethical and religious standards, they were eventually seen as mere prudes by the general public of England, and

1

Francis J. Bremer, Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction (p. 2, l. 15-17), 2009 © Oxford University Press

2

Transcript of Declaration of Independence, U.S. National Archives

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finally felt pressured into moving elsewhere, which is what led them to the New World. As previously mentioned, a large portion of the Puritans settled in Salem, Massachusetts. The gruesome events that occurred here in the time of the Puritans are popularly referred to as the Salem Witch Trials.

Summary and Explanation of the Salem Witch Trials

In the year of 1692, the drama in Puritan society of Salem, Massachusetts was at

its historical peak. After King William the 3^{rd} and Queen Mary the 2^{nd} of England had started a

war with the French colonists in a territorial dispute in 1689, refugees scattered to many places,

and some moved to the village of Salem^{3}. The relocation of these refugees to Salem caused

discrepancies in the local society in the form of a strain on their resources. The Puritan villagers eventually needed something on which to blame their struggles, and slowly but surely decided that it must have been the work of Satan. The struggles in Salem Village are thought to be what launched the numerous witchcraft accusations as the result of a desperate need to blame someone for their misfortunes.

The witchcraft accusations in Salem Village began with the local reverend’s daughter having fallen ill, along with a few other young girls from the village, after having allegedly danced in the woods with other fellow village girls and Tituba, the reverend’s black slave. The local doctor was called upon to determine the cause of illness, as the condition of the girls did not improve – he claimed witchcraft was the only possible explanation. The mention of witchcraft and other ill supernatural deeds spawned the chain reaction of baseless accusations that will explained in the next paragraphs.

As a result of the doctor’s diagnosis, Jonathan Corwin and John Hathorne – both wealthy merchants and magistrates of the Massachusetts Bay Colony – pressured the village girls in poor health into admitting who the perpetrators were; who had caused them to meet this fate. The girls uttered in pain the names of three women, all of whom were later imprisoned

without proof of their misdeeds, despite the fact that two of them pleaded innocent^{3}.

Furthermore, the reason for the three women’s arrest was based entirely on the seemingly

“bewitched” outcries of the diseased young girls^{4}, as their unnatural fits and spasms convinced

the townsfolk that the work of the Devil was present.

3

Jess Blumberg, A Brief History of the Salem Witch Trials, Smithsonian Magazine, Oct. 27^{th}, 2007

4

History.com Editors, Salem Witch Trials, History.com, A&E Television Networks, LLC.

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The series of trials and convictions that took place in the following months was set in motion by the questionable diagnostic abilities of a single doctor, and the village girls’

inclination to abuse their newfound manipulative powers^{5}; they were able get rid of mostly all

the people that disagreed with or challenged their truthfulness in the slightest.

A total of 19 women accused of witchcraft were hanged, a single man was crushed to death as he refused to plead either guilty or not, and around 13 died in prison before being

executed.^{6} Throughout the many accusations, verdicts, and executions, however, the general

public opinion slowly started to turn against the trials. The accusations had been getting bolder, affecting more and more of the wealthy inhabitants and people of a higher social standing, whereas in the beginning, it affected only slaves, homeless, and other poor people without any substantial influence. This is the reason, which allowed the accusations to go unchallenged in the beginning, but further along become threatened by the people who had a say in the matters.

As a result, doubt had started to circle the authenticity of the “bewitched” village girls’ claims.

Finally, the colonial governor of Massachusetts, William Phips^{7}, ordered the

cessation of the use of spectral evidence in the courtroom, and for no more arrests based on witchcraft to be made. The chief judge of Salem, William Stoughton, ordered all the women who had been accused of witchcraft, but were currently exempted due to pregnancy, to be hanged.

Governor Phips denied the order, and Judge Stoughton left the bench.^{8} Although the aftermath

of these events is not accounted for in this essay, that concludes the brief summary of the Salem Witch Trials.

Analysis and Interpretation of The Crucible

Notes

Written in 1953 by Arthur Miller, The Crucible is a play set in Salem,

Massachusetts, and concerns the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. In the beginning of the book, Miller notes that the book is not historically accurate, in the sense that several characters have been tampered with, some put together as one, and all their personalities conjured up, to the best of

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the author’s ability, from the different records of the time period .

As the book is a play based on historic events, the narrator is only able to explain the missing details of events and characters throughout the book, and give brief summaries of background stories that do not come to light through the lines of the characters.

5

The Salem Witch Trials of 1692, 2012 © Salem Witch Museum

6

Death Warrant & List of Dead, Famous American Trials

7

Phips, Sir William, Dictionary of Canadian Biography

8

Chronology of Events Regarding to the Salem Witch Trials of 1692, Famous American Trials

9

Arthur Miller, The Crucible, 2000 © Penguin Classics

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The Title

First of all, the title of the play, The Crucible, has officially been defined as several different things, but most relevant are the following two examples:

1) “A vessel made of a refractory substance such as graphite or porcelain,

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used for melting and calcining materials at high temperatures.”

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2) “A severe test, as of patience or belief; a trial.”

These definitions give the reader the choice to interpret the title in different ways.

The first one is the literal meaning the word carries, and can be utilized to understand the title as a metaphor of the violent hysteria and heated reactions that take place in Salem Village. As such, Salem could be interpreted as the “melting pot”, and the characters would consequently symbolize the different materials that melt together and create violent and heated reactions within. Secondly, the other definition that uses the word as a metaphor gives the reader the opposite possibility of interpreting the title quite literally; the different characters in the story

that must undergo a trial of patience and faith^{11}.

Therefore, the word – in its metaphorical sense – strongly hints at the harsh trials of two major characters of The Crucible, namely John and Elizabeth Proctor, whom will later on be explained and analyzed in greater detail.

The Themes

In The Crucible, there is no shortage of universally applicable themes to be found and pondered upon. A few of the themes possess a heavier presence than others, however, and the most important ones are tied together with the essence of this play. The ones that this research paper have found to carry higher importance will be analyzed in this section.

Good and Evil

As the elements that possibly contribute the most irony to the entire play, these themes are represented entirely differently, depending on whom is consulted for the answer.

The entire concept of Puritanism is to be the most devoted Christian you can be, devoting your entire life to service under God, and the most important part, in relation to the themes discussed, to combat the evil around oneself at all times through the good word of God. As such, as an entry point, the Puritans represent goodness. However, in The Crucible, goodness is in fact represented by the accused people of the trials, and one example of this is John Proctor.

10

The American Heritage® Dictionary Editors, crucible. (n.d)., The Free Dictionary by Farlex

11

Shmoop Editors, The Crucible Title, Shmoop University, Inc., Nov. 11^{th}, 2008

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Although he is rightly accused of committing a heinous sin, he becomes one of the most admirable characters of the entire play. In his refusal to give into the demands of the powerful magistrates, because of their redundant methods of punishment, John revokes their almighty status as judges, and prevents them from obtaining what they sought from him. As he has already confessed, and begged for forgiveness and received it, he deems it a cruel and unnecessary punishment that he should also sign a written confession, forever soiling his name.

As an example of evil, the fate of a man by the name of Giles Corey is highly

applicable. Although Giles was not a saint himself^{12}, the measures taken against him to make

him confess could be deemed of a greater evil. He is accused of witchcraft, and as he refuses to plead neither guilty nor innocent, the magistrates initiate torture by gradually crushing Giles underneath an increasing weight of stones over the course of several days, until he eventually died. As people who claim to judge only by the hand of God’s justice, the magistrates contradictorily let the old and weak man, Giles Corey, die a tortured death.

Compassion and Forgiveness

The two themes in question go hand-in-hand in this play by Arthur Miller, and are coincidentally represented by two main characters who go hand-in-hand, as well – John and Elizabeth Proctor. This married couple fights against the very fabric of which the Puritan court system of Salem consists in the time period. As they eventually succeed in proving that these themes are indeed more powerful than the twisted justice and naïve religious principles of the contemporary Puritan law system, it becomes clear that the author meant for these themes to be overwhelmingly visible towards the end of the book.

Morality and Integrity

As virtues that are noticeable throughout the entire book in the form of John and

Elizabeth Proctor, these closely connected themes become the winning piece in the battle between good and evil. To discover the presence of these themes, one need only take a look at the exemplary acts and words of courage by John and Elizabeth, to witness what great lengths the truly strong people will go, to protect what they hold most dear. To demonstrate is the following example, in which Elizabeth shows her true character:

“DANFORTH: […] Answer my question! Is your husband a lecher!

ELIZABETH, faintly: No, sir.

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PROCTOR, crying out: Elizabeth, I have confessed it!”

12

Rebecca Beatrice Books, The Curse of Giles Corey, History of Massachusetts, Oct. 12^{th}, 2011

13

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 100, l. 21-26), 2000 © Penguin Classics

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In this passage, Elizabeth forsakes the honesty, which she has always held dear, to protect her husband’s reputation, and the only thing he has left – his name. She sees the option to keep her husband’s name clean as the most morally correct choice, and the integrity of her character allows her to forsake all other principles in exchange for the most important one to her. Her act of integrity seems to inspire her husband, as John chooses to not sign the written confession he is later presented, possibly in part because it would render his wife’s effort meaningless.

The Time Period and Environment

As previously mentioned, The Crucible takes place in colonial America, in the late

17^{th} century. Among the many Puritan settlements, Salem, Massachusetts was in fact quite small

when compared to others. In this period, a highly visible religious influence shaped the society in which the Puritan settlers lived. In not only Salem, but also all other Puritan-based

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settlements, the theocratically inclined government of the time made itself quite noticeable in

the way of many laws that derived from norms within the religion and specific branch of Christendom. Among the many laws, a few effectively portray the pious dutifulness encouraged by the government. These include the prohibition of expressing intimate affection in public on Sundays, i.e. kissing one’s wife, the outlawing of any idle activities, such as swimming or smoking, and finally, the wearing of any unnecessary or provocative attire, such as short-

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sleeved dresses, ribbons, or wrist cuffs, was also strictly forbidden

. The enforcement of these laws often came through punishment in the form of sitting in the stocks for several hours, for example. As a result, the inhabitants of these settlements were more than inclined to follow the strict guidelines for how to live one’s life in the service of God, and not waste it away on worldly pleasures.

It is also important to note that the environment of the Puritan settlements, although peaceful and orderly on the inside, was surrounded by the unknown, including many dangers and general hostility. This constant threat of the unknown was an important factor in what drove the Puritans to obsessively cling to their highly regarded codes, rules, and miscellaneous guidelines. The Native American tribes still roamed the uncivilized lands, and the Puritans, amongst many other white colonists, regarded the savage nature of these people as

something they had to reform by the will of God^{16}.

14

Collins Dictionary Editors, theocratically (n.d.), 2013 © Collins English Dictionary

15

Murray N. Rothbard, The Puritans “Purify”: Theocracy in Massachusetts, Ludwig von Mises Institute

16

Casey Clay, How Did the Puritans in New England Interact with Native Americans, July 7^{th}, 2008,

Humanities 360

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When in possession of the background knowledge above, pertaining to the time period of the trials and the environment in which they took place, Arthur Miller’s dramatization of the events in Salem Village becomes more comprehensible to the common reader – or viewer

– of the play.

Analysis of Selected Characters

John Proctor

Throughout the play, John Proctor remains the main protagonist. Although he gave into temptation once, in the form of an affair with Abigail Williams, he dies a redeemed death, with his name intact. As a man filled with integrity and strong moral principles, his prideful nature does not let him be coerced into signing the written confession, he is given, stating that he has committed adultery. The reason for this uncooperative action seems to be the fact that he has already verbally confessed his sin, and the signing of the written confession would only soil his name further, for no apparent purpose, as the following quote demonstrates:

“PROCTOR: … How may I live without my name?

I have given you my soul; leave me my name!”^{17}

Before our protagonist reached this point, one could argue that he underwent great internal struggles and finally decided upon the honorable choice of not bending to the will of the magistrates. Although tormented through many nights of battling with his own demons, and the sin that he has committed, John Proctor eventually comes to terms with his misdeeds, and never succumbs to the arguably tempting choice of signing the confession in return for his life. The development this tragic hero undergoes, symbolizes where his strength truly lies; in his standard of ethics and moral principles, John Proctor can – somewhat ironically – be considered the truest of Christians out of the entire character list in the book.

Elizabeth Proctor

The wife of John Proctor, Elizabeth, experiences internal struggles similar to the ones of her husband. Just as John faces difficulties in forgiving himself for his sins, Elizabeth has a hard time forgiving her husband for his unfaithfulness towards her. Eventually, they both end up choosing forgiveness over the bitterness that is to carry a contemptuous attitude towards the wrongdoings. Although being the victim of her husband’s crimes, Elizabeth finds faults of her own, which enables her to both understand John, and forgive him for his sins:

“ELIZABETH: … I have read my heart this three month, John. [Pause]

I have sins of my own to count. It needs a cold wife to prompt lechery.”^{18}

17

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 124, l. 32-33), 2000 © Penguin Classics

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As such, it can be argued that the character development of these two characters is parallel, as shall be explained in further detail below.

The Integrity and Compassion of John and Elizabeth Proctor

As husband and wife, John and Elizabeth undergo tremendous strain on their marriage after an act of adultery is exposed. After John lays with Abigail Williams of the same village, he feels a lurking of constant suspicion and doubt from his wife, concerning his every word and action. Meanwhile, as he has trouble dealing with his sinful act, Elizabeth also faces difficulties in forgiving her husband for this misdeed that leaves her a victim.

However, they help each other in overcoming the obstacle that initially divides and weakens them. Prior to John’s arrest, after his verbal confession, he and Elizabeth discuss their uneasiness around each other, and the “elephant in the room”, that is John’s affair:

“PROCTOR: … Let you look sometimes for the goodness in me, and judge me not.

ELIZABETH: I do not judge you. The magistrate sits in your heart that judges you.

I never thought you but a good man, John […] only somewhat bewildered.”^{19}

The passage above reveals that the couple do in part reconcile their conflict, before the climactic point in act four, in which they achieve complete forgiveness. As previously mentioned, Elizabeth does not attempt to maintain her innocence throughout the entire play, but eventually comes to terms with what pushed John into his unfaithful misdeed. It is this realization, in combination with John’s determination to keep his name unsoiled, which draws an indistinguishably transparent and uniting bond between Elizabeth’s compassionate attitude and John’s unbreakable morality, and lets John die with peace in his soul and his dignity intact, having finally achieved the forgiveness he sought, from not only his wife, but from himself as well.

Discussion of The Crucible as a critique of McCarthyism

Before the similarities between the witch-hunts dramatized in Arthur Miller’s play and the “Red Scare” of 1950’s McCarthyism can be clearly seen, it is first necessary to take a look at and understand McCarthyism, how it originated, why it spread like wildfire, and the elements of which it consists. After these components of the terrifying phenomenon that is McCarthyism have been explained, a deeper analysis and discussion of The Crucible as critique thereof will be presented.

18

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 119, l. 19-21), 2000 © Penguin Classics

19

Arthur Miller, The Crucible (p. 55, l. 28-32), 2000 © Penguin Classics

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McCarthyism and the Red Scare

When speaking of McCarthyism, one of a few popular descriptive terms that often

comes up, is the second Red Scare. Not to be confused with the first Red Scare^{20}, which was

popular only briefly after the First World War, the second Red Scare intensified in the U.S. as the

Cold War progressed from the late 1940’s to the early 1950’s^{21}. Popularly defined as the fear of

communism, it was a phenomenon that occurred through the exploitation of the vulnerable state U.S. citizens found themselves in, as the Cold War was ongoing. The people feared the presence of communism, as Soviet Union of said political ideology was the greatest threat the U.S. had faced in a long time. The Red Scare’s definition, and how it was provoked, leads us to McCarthyism, which can most easily be defined as the following:

“McCarthyism (n.): the practice of making unsubstantiated accusations of disloyalty or Communist

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leanings […] [Or] the use of unsupported accusations for any purpose.”

Joseph Raymond McCarthy, after whom the –ism in question is named, was a U.S

Senator who achieved his position by the means of negative campaigning^{23}, in which one

purposely attempts to highlight negative aspects of an opposing candidate, and these aspects need not necessarily be true for the claims to be made anyway.

Former Senator McCarthy was facing difficulties at his position in the Senate, and, after a consultation with his closest advisors, decided to redirect the negative focus he had attained by the public towards something his advisors thought would be easy targets:

communists^{23}. McCarthy utilized the potential for the Red Scare he saw amongst U.S. citizens,

and set in motion a witch-hunt that would result in a case of widespread panic that is today known as McCarthyism. McCarthy’s movement was eventually put to a halt by former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and was afterwards regarded as a malicious and power hungry man.

The Crucible and McCarthyism

Released in 1953, the play by Arthur Miller was well-received, and quickly became critically acclaimed as an accurate depiction of the hypocrisy and hysteria that was McCarthyism. As a review from Brooks Atkinson reveals, no qualms were had of drawing a parallel between the witch-hunts of America in the colonial times as well as in the contemporary present day of the play’s release:

20

Jamie Kern, The Red Scare (), The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture, Dec. 12^{th}, 2013

21

History.com Editors, Red Scare (n.d.), History.com, A&E Television Networks, LLC.

22

Collins English Dictionary Editors, McCarthyism (n.d.), The Free Dictionary by Farlex

23

John Simkin, Joseph McCarthy: Biography, Spartacus Educational,

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“Neither Mr. Miller nor his audiences are unaware of certain similarities between the perversions

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of justice then and today.”

However, regarding the very fabric of the play, various examples can be used to demonstrate Arthur Miller’s intentions of portraying McCarthyism as an old-fashioned witch-hunt, and a select few of these will be discussed in the sections below.

Unsubstantiated Claims and Spectral Evidence

Amongst the most easily noticed examples of similar elements might be the active usage of accusations based upon unstable foundations, in both the village girls of Salem’s case, as well as Senator McCarthy’s.

The girls who were thought to be possessed by the devil, at the time of the Salem

Witch Trials, accused people of witchcraft without any real evidence, resorting only to their hysterical fits, which seemed like the work of the devil. As a result, they succeeded in having many of those people hanged. Likewise, Senator McCarthy presented a list of over 200

“confirmed” communist party members in the U.S. Department of State, without any substantial proof, and the list was eventually discovered to be almost entirely false.

Fear of Suspicion and Judgment

Another similarity worthy of mention is the impressive lack of resistance found in both of the compared periods. It could be argued that the reason for this was people’s fear of being drawn into the conflict, and immediately viewed as a witch in the time of colonial Salem, or a communist in the time of McCarthy’s seat in the senate.

Arthur Miller: The “Un-American”?

Possibly one of the most noteworthy details that were not made public until four years after the release of his play, Arthur Miller was in 1957 charged with contempt of Congress.

The details pertaining to the reason for this charge, and why he was blacklisted by Hollywood^{25},

present an interesting factor to consider when discussing The Crucible as a critique of McCarthyism.

Miller was called to testify in front of HUAC^{26} in order to present the names of

communist party members, but refused to do so. In a later statement by the charged author, he revealed why he thought there might be suspicions revolving his knowledge of communist party members:

24

Brooks Atkinson, The Crucible, The New York Times, Jan. 23^{rd}, 1953

25

John Simkin, Arthur Miller: Biography, Spartacus Educational,

26

House of Un-American Activities Committee

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“There were two short periods — one in 1940 and one in 1947 — when I was sufficiently close to Communist Party activities so that someone might honestly have thought that I had become a

member.”^{27}

Along with this statement, Miller issued a statement denying rumors that he was a communist. Although the charges made against the acclaimed playwright were eventually lifted, different conflicting rumors concerning his political views still exist to this day.

Conclusion

On the basis of the similarities discussed, a conclusion can be reached, which clearly illustrates The Crucible as a direct critique of McCarthyism. Through the exploration and analysis of the themes in the play written by Arthur Miller, and their correlation to the so-called witch-hunt of the McCarthy period, it becomes apparent that history does indeed repeat itself, as the playwright purposefully attempts to demonstrate, and that corrupt governmental control thrives in times of fear, and indiscriminately utilizes the general ignorance in people’s mentalities from which these times spawn.

27

Jewish Current Editors, Arthur Miller and HUAC (n.d.), Jewish Current.org, May 30^{th}, 2010

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- Blumberg, Jess, A Brief History of the Salem Witch Trials, Smithsonian Magazine, Oct. 27^{th},
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(http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAmillerA.htm) Last visited 12/20-2013

- Simkin, John, Joseph McCarthy: Biography, Spartacus Educational,

(http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAmccarthy.htm) Last visited 12/19-2013

- U.S. National Archives Editors, Declaration of Independence, Official Transcript, U.S.

National Archives

(http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration_transcript.html) Last visited
12/16-2013

Books and Articles

- Atkinson, Brooks, The Crucible, The New York Times, Jan. 23^{rd}, 1953

- Bremer, Francis J., Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction, 2009 © Oxford University Press

- Miller, Arthur, The Crucible, 2000 © Penguin Classics